Forming impressions: a cognitive approach
Initially, researchers formulated this question as follows: “How do we combine diverse information about a person into one whole and form a single impression?”
This is a completely justified formulation: a person is ambivalent and contradictory, in various situations he sometimes behaves in diametrically opposite ways. How do we reduce this to a single denominator?
One answer is that we combine information about a person into a weighted average, in which each piece of information about him is weighted in terms of its relative importance. What determines this relative importance, the “weight” of information? 4 factors:
- Data source. The higher the credibility of the source, the more important the information. What we saw with our own eyes will have more weight in our judgment than what some gossip told us.
- We consider negative information more important than positive information.
- The more unusual the information, the more important it is for us.
- We evaluate the information that we received first as more valuable and important.
Impression
Patterns and Abstractions
This is an important moment in forming impressions. Patterns are concrete manifestations, and abstractions are our conclusions.
Natasha was late for a date last night - this is an example. Natasha is unpunctual - this is an abstraction.
Some theories emphasize the role of exemplars, some the role of abstractions. We will not delve into scientific controversy and will say the following: the better you know a person, the more important abstractions are.
The following experiment was conducted: participants were given a set of examples of Bob's behavior. All examples pointed to kindness and intelligence. But the participants were divided into two groups: some had more information, others less.
After studying examples of behavior, participants in the experiment were asked to complete one of the tasks: describe Bob's character or define each of the observed characteristics. They were then asked to recall examples of Bob's behavior.
The experimenters believed that if impressions are mainly based on behavioral patterns, then the task of describing a person’s character based on the characteristics of his behavior will activate these patterns in memory and thereby improve the performance of the memory task. If the impression is based on abstractions, then the task will not facilitate subsequent recall.
It turned out that for participants who received little information, description did facilitate recall (that is, they relied on exemplars), but for participants who received a lot of information, there was no such effect (they relied on abstractions).
First impression, or what you can tell about a person in a couple of seconds
Thin sections
This term was coined in 1992 by psychologists Nalini Ambady and Robert Rosenthal.
They used it to study the phenomenon of first impression and social intuition. According to the hypothesis, a person's nonverbal behavior can tell a lot about him. To test this assumption, the scientists recorded 10-second silent videos of Harvard professors giving lectures. The video was shown to people unfamiliar with the teachers and they were asked to rate the speakers using 15 parameters (“thin slices”). Volunteers judged how active the lecturers were, confident, sincere, and so on.
Then the experiment was repeated, but 5-second videos were shown to another group of viewers. Surprisingly, the thin sections in both cases were almost identical. The scientists went further: the timing was reduced to 2 seconds, and the participants in the experiment were again updated. The result was repeated.
After this, the researchers asked students to characterize teachers who attend their lectures and have known them for more than one semester. And here lay the main surprise.
Thin sections among students and outside observers who evaluated teachers only on short “silent” videos were almost identical. This allowed us to summarize:
People make conclusions about those they see for the first time very quickly, literally within the first 2 seconds of communication. Moreover, their judgment has nothing to do with what the person says.
Let's find out what thin slices people make about us in the first seconds of meeting us.
Confidence
Alexander Todorov and Janine Willis from Princeton University found that people make judgments about the reliability of their interlocutor within 100 milliseconds.
One group was shown photographs of people they didn't know and asked to rate their attractiveness, competence, and trustworthiness. Each picture was shown for 0.1 seconds. The other group was given the same pictures, but there was no time limit. As a result, the assessments of the experiment participants who looked at the photographs for only 100 milliseconds coincided with the assessments of those who looked at the photos as much as they wanted. The correlation was especially strong when assessing the level of trust in a person.
Social status
A study by Dutch scientists showed that people use clothing as a social marker that determines an individual's position in society and income level. When a person wears Tommy Hilfiger, Lacoste or other famous brands, others think that he has a high position.
In one experiment, participants were shown videos of interviews of applicants for a laboratory assistant position at a university. Some applicants were wearing simple white shirts, while others were wearing clearly branded shirts. But everyone's actions and speech were identical. Each volunteer was shown only one video, after watching which he had to rate on a seven-point scale how worthy this or that applicant is of the position and what his social status is. The social status of applicants wearing designer clothes was rated higher, as were their chances of getting a job.
The authors of the study note that designer clothing did not affect the assessment of other qualities - reliability, kindness, and others. Only status.
Sexual orientation
Nalini Ambady and Nicholas Rule conducted a study and found that a man's sexual orientation can be determined in 50 milliseconds.
Volunteers were shown photographs of men (hetero and homo) from dating sites in random order for different time intervals. With 50 milliseconds of visual contact with a photo, the accuracy of sexual orientation judgments was 62%.
Approximately the same results were obtained in a study of the likelihood of identifying women's sexual identity based on their faces (Rule, Ambady, & Hallett, 2009). Moreover, this required even less time - 0.04 seconds.
Intelligence
Loyola University Los Angeles psychology professor Nora A. Murphy suggests that the ability to make eye contact is considered a sign of intelligence. Those who do not look away when they meet give the impression of being more intellectually developed people.
Murphy tried to determine by what criteria people evaluate mental abilities. To do this, the subjects were divided into two groups: the first were asked to clearly demonstrate erudition during a conversation recorded on video; the others were not given such instructions. All participants passed an IQ test. Those “playing” behaved approximately the same: they maintained their posture, made a serious face and certainly looked into the eyes of their interlocutor. And it was in this group that viewers most often reliably determined the level of intelligence of the participants, including low ones.
Making eye contact during a conversation is key to behavior. This is interconnected with the assessment of intelligence, which can be manipulated if you do not hide your eyes.
In addition to this, there are other stereotypes that shape the idea of a person’s mind. For example, wearing solid glasses.
If you want to be, and not seem, read the articles “How to become smarter” and “Three ways to become smarter.”
Promiscuity
British scientists have found that women with tattoos on prominent parts of the body are perceived as more promiscuous (who sometimes like to drink heavily and are promiscuous).
Study authors Viren Swami and Adrian Furham showed participants photographs of women in swimsuits. Some of them had tattoos on their stomachs, others - on their arms, others had both here and there, and others did not have them. Volunteers were asked to rate women on three parameters:
- moral stability;
- alcohol consumption;
- physical attractiveness.
The more tattooed a woman was, the less attractive and chaste she was considered. “A girl with a tattoo in the public eye is a tomboy who loves alcohol, cool cars and the attention of men,” the scientists concluded.
Leadership
Albert E. Mannes from the Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania found that bald men are considered dominant and are perceived as leaders who can successfully lead a team.
The scientist conducted a series of experiments. During one of them, he showed photographs of men with and without hair. The people in the photo were the same age and wearing the same clothes. Volunteers had to look at the pictures and say which of the men was stronger morally and physically. The palm went to the bald ones.
Success
A team of British-Turkish researchers found that people wearing tailored suits appear to be more successful in their careers.
Researchers also came to this conclusion during experiments with photographs. Volunteers only had 5 seconds to make a conclusion.
If you want to improve your image and look more successful in the eyes of others, wear clothes that are custom-made by a good tailor.
The study also says that women wearing sexy skirts and low-cut blouses are perceived as lower status workers than women who adhere to a strict dress code. Scientists attribute this to the fact that a closed body is a sign of power. From time immemorial, representatives of security forces wore closed robes.
Potential
In 2011, Canadian researchers came to the following conclusion: in the eyes of others, men who prefer a classic business suit achieve fame, money and success faster than adherents of a casual style.
Participants in the experiment were shown photographs of models. Some of them were in elegant suits, while others were in simple everyday clothes. Volunteers were asked to predict who the people in the photo would work as and what fate awaited them. As a result, men in jeans and sweaters were assigned lower wages and positions, even if they sat in leather chairs in posh offices. On the contrary, people in formal suits were judged as “kings of life”: they will have a lot of money, they will quickly achieve success.
Adventurism
Researchers at Durham University have discovered a link between gait and a sense of adventure. In their opinion, a free and relaxed gait speaks of extroversion and a penchant for adventure. While a jerky gait is characteristic of neurotic individuals.
The conclusions were drawn from an experiment where students watched videos of people walking.
As you can see, the folk wisdom “one meets people by their clothes...” has scientific justification. At the same time, the first impression made by a person often remains final.
What do you pay attention to when meeting people and why? Tell us in the comments.
First impression
Many people believe that a lot depends on it. And they are absolutely right. The first impression is quite strong and lasting - of course, it can be corrected and changed, but this will require a lot of effort and time.
Solomon Ash, one of the first researchers of the process of impression formation, noted that people very quickly generate judgments about people and are usually not inclined to change them. This is called the primacy effect.
Therefore, it is in your best interest to make a good first impression. How can I do that?
All tactics can be divided into two categories: strengthening your position or strengthening the position of your interlocutor.
Strengthening your position
This includes good appearance, thoughtful use of non-verbal cues, even the use of perfume. The more attractive a person is, the better the first impression he makes - this is no secret.
This also includes self-presentation: a description of one’s strengths and positive traits. Of course, this should not turn into boasting and egocentrism. But unobtrusively providing positive information about you will work to your advantage (for example, a good resume when applying for a job).
Strengthening the interlocutor's position
These are compliments, empathy, a sense of humor, even flattery. You make the person feel comfortable around you, so that he feels good. If you give a person positive emotions, you will probably like him and arouse sympathy.
You can also do a small favor, help with something, give a gift or express your sympathy (both verbally and non-verbally). There are many ways to cheer up your interlocutor - use at least some of them.
And, of course, the maximum effect can be achieved by combining these two methods. And remember to be unobtrusive: if a person realizes that you are currying favor with him and deliberately trying to form a good impression, he is unlikely to appreciate it. Be natural and sincere.
